Introduction

Learning Objectives

• Understand the structure of the class and components of assessment
• Define measurement, constructs, and test
• Discuss problems inherent in psychological science measurement
• Apply Steven’s levels of measurement to different measurement
• Describe some early history of testing in China and the major tests developed in the U.S.
• Render a simple Quarto document using RStudio

Physical Measurement

French revolution (1789): Metric system

A measurement system requires standardization

What is Measurement?

Assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules

(Stevens, 1946, p. 677)¹

• Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio variables

1. doi: 10.1126/science.103.2684.677

Another Definition

[E]stimation or ratio of some magnitude of a quantitative attribute to a unit of the same attribute

(Michell, 1997, p. 358)¹

Roughly speaking, this requires interval/ratio measures

See also the alternative framework of conjoint measurement: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_conjoint_measurement

1. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02641.x

Measurement in Social and Behavioral Sciences

Constructs

Theoretical entities to account for certain characteristics or behaviors.

• aka latent constructs, factors
• E.g., intellectual abilities, attitudes, personality

• Constructs in social and behavioral sciences are complex
• Measurement of them is indirect
  • Only a sample of indicators is used
  • Some indicators may not elicit the target construct

Measurement Theory

The study of how to develop tests that are as free as possible of measurement error and that yield the most appropriate measures of the desired constructs

• Investigate the impact of measurement error on test results
• Improve tests and testing procedures

Testing

• Chinese Civil Service Examinations
  • Oral exam (1115 BCE)
  • Written exam (206–220 BCE; or 581–605 BCE)

Testing (cont’d)

• Ancient Greece
  • Oral/performance-based
  • Helped to form and reinforce the national character
• Early European Testing
  • University of Bologna: determining eligibility for degrees (1219)

Oxford: written exam in 1803 or earlier for BA and MA

Psychological Measurement

Test

A device or procedure in which a sample of an examinee’s behavior in a specified domain is obtained and subsequently evaluated and scored using a standardized process

(Standards, 2014, p. 2)

• Example applications: diagnose learning disabilities and personality disorders; study individual differences; test theories involving constructs?

Psychological Measurement

• German psychophysical labs (early 1800s)
  • Precise estimates of reaction time, visual, and auditory perception
  • Individual differences were considered noise
• Influence from evolutionary theory
  • Variation in measurements
  • From height, weight → reaction time and other mental measures ¹

In 1890, these included tests of strength of squeeze, rate of arm movement, acuity of sensation, amount of pressure causing pain, least noticeable difference in weight, reaction time for sound, time taken to name colors, accuracy in bisecting a line, accuracy of judging time elapsed, and number of letters that could be repeated on one hearing.

1. E.g., amount of pressure causing pain, least noticeable difference in weight, and number of letters that could be repeated on one hearing.

Psychological Measurement (cont’d)

• Intelligence Testing
  • 1896: foundation of “modern” aptitude tests
  • Concerned with best way to educate children with special needs
  • 1905: first intelligence scale
    • Mental levels/ages
  • Stanford-Binet Scale in the U.S.

Binet: memory, mental imagery, imagination, attention, comprehension, suggestibility, aesthetic appreciation, force of will, moral sentiments, motor skill, judgment of visual space

• Terman scored every one of the over 2,500 tests himself

Other Development in Psychological Tests

• Group testing (e.g., The Army Alpha)
  • Multiple-choice items for objective scoring
• Occupational Interest Inventories
• Tests for jobs
• Personality Assessment